2013年5月8日 星期三

2013年5月2日 星期四

腸球菌感染


治療
`                               E. faecalis                E.faecium
  PCN G                        +
  AMG                          S (synergistic)          S (gentamicin only)
  ampi/amo                   +                                +
  pip/tazo                      +
  imipenem                   +

  Tigecycline                +                                +
  vancomycin               +
  Teicoplanin (targocid) +
  Linezolid                    +                               +         
  Daptomycin               +                               +
  quinupristin-dalfopristin -                           +
  FQ (cravit/avelox)     +
        cipro                     -

  Cephalosporin          -

Af, atrial fibrillation


治療

1.CCB 
  isoptin  (40mg/#)(5mg/amp)      0.1-1 amp (in N/S 20ml iv 2 min);   1#tid-3#tid
  herbesser (30mg/#)                                                                   1#qid-3#qid
  注意: 小心CHF; prefer in COPD; can 增加 digoxin level;
  血壓掉: 用vitacal

2.BB
  Inderal (10mg/#)                                                     1-3# tid-qid
  NOTE: prefer in CAD; 小心CHF, asthma

3.Amiodarone (200mg/#; 150mg/amp)  1-2amp in D5W 50ml, run 20-30min 

4.Digoxin (0.25mg/#) (0.5mg/amp)    0.5amp q2h x5       0.5-1.5-2# qd
  NOTE: prefer in CHF, 低血壓

5.Mexitil (100mg/#)                                                     1# bid-tid


 
 

心血管疾病


冠狀動脈疾病
高血壓,   高血脂
心臟衰竭
心律不整 (Af)

心包膜積液,

頸動脈狹窄


PAOD,
  trental (pentoxyphylline) (1#tid, bid, qd)
  pleetal (1#bid-qd)
  ticlopidine (pietenale) (100mg) 1#qd ~ 2-3# bid
  persantin (50mg) 1#tid
  urokinase (150-200萬U in N/S 500ml, run 20ml/h)
  fragmin (5000u/支) 1支 sc q12h

DVT
  fragmin, 1支 sc q12h
  persantin (1#tid)
  pietenale (1#qd)

急性肺栓塞
  tPA (10mg ivd for 2 min; 90 mg IVD for 2h)

2013年4月17日 星期三

甲狀腺風暴thyroid storm

甲狀腺風暴(thyroid storm or accelerated hyperthyroidism)或稱
甲狀腺毒性危象(thyrotoxic crisis)      William's textbook of Endocrinology, 12 Ed

[定義]: 
  thyrotoxicosis 嚴重到使生理decompensation, (高體溫, 黃疸, 心衰竭, 意識障礙)
  甲狀腺亢進症因未治療或不規則服藥, 在原子碘治療後, stress下 (手術, 受傷, 產後, 感染) 產生明顯症狀

-an extreme accentuation of thyrotoxicosis.
-為罕見但嚴重的急性併發症,
-常發生在Graves' dz 病人身上, 有時出現於有toxic multinodular goiter 的老年人

診斷: 測FT4, T3, & hsTSH
-甲狀腺風暴主要是藉由臨床症狀診斷。
  高燒(38- 40℃),
  心血管系統可能的症狀包括心博過速(140次/分以上)、心律不整、心衰竭;
  神經系統可能的症狀為瞻妄與昏迷;
  肝膽腸胃系統則可能出現腹瀉、噁心、嘔吐或黃疸。
  如果是年紀大的病患,可能以無力、嗜睡或心衰竭表現,即所謂的Apathetic thyrotoxicosis。
不典型的症狀則以橫紋肌溶解、肝衰竭、休克、癲癇、急性腹痛或多重器官衰竭做為臨床表現,
當病患無甲狀腺功能亢進病史,且未出現典型症狀時,可能不易診斷。
若能及早診斷與治療,則可以降低死亡率。


誘發原因:

  -長期未接受抗甲狀腺藥物治療、
  -感染、糖尿病酮酸中毒(DKA)、外傷、手術(甲狀腺或其他手術)、懷孕生產、情緒壓力
  -含碘藥劑(amiodarone)投與、
  -腦中風、心衰竭、肺栓塞、高血鈣、
  

Burch & Wartofsky 臨床診斷score


 >=45   => highly suggestive of thyroid storm; 
 25–44 => impending storm,  
 < 25    => unlikely 
 Diagnostic parameters Scoring points
 Thermoregulatory dysfunction
Temperature (°C)
 (37.2-37.7)
 (37.8-38.2)
 (38.3-38.8)
 (38.9-39.2)
 (39.3-39.9)
 (>/= 40.0)

5
10
15
20
25
30 
 中樞神經 effects
Absent
Mild (agitation)
Moderate (delirium, psychosis, extreme lethargy
Severe (seizures, coma) 
0
10
20
30
 肝膽腸胃 dysfunction
Absent
Moderate (diarrhea, nausea/vomiting, abdominal pain)
Severe (unexplained jaundice) 
0
10
20
 心血管 dysfunction
 Tachycardia (beats/minute)
90–109
110–119
120–129
130–139
>/= 140

5
10
15
20
25
 CHF
Absent
Mild (pedal edema)
Moderate (bibasilar rales)
Severe (pulmonary edema)

0
5
10
15
 Atrial fibrillation
Absent
Present

Precipitating event
Absent
Present
 0
10

0
10

References:
  1. Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1993;22:263–77 [Medline]
  2. Nayak B, Burman K. Thyrotoxicosis and thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2006 Dec;35(4):663-86. [Medline]

因此醫師診視腸胃炎症狀合併發燒的病患時,除了感染性腸胃炎的診斷外,若病患有甲狀腺功能亢進病史,且出現意識不清的症狀時,即使有至開發中國家的旅遊史,也必須考慮是否為甲狀腺風暴,並針對甲狀腺功能亢進給予適當的治療。


治療:

PTU (50mg)
2-4# (100-200mg) q6h
KI 粉劑 (1g/pk)
200mg        q6-8h  (in 10ml water,果汁); (PTU給完1h服用); then taper
                 (高濃度碘離子,抑制甲狀腺製造分泌(Wolff-Chaikoff eff)
  Lithium carbonate (300mg/cap)
1 cap        q8h   碘過敏替代KI; 維持 [Li] = 1 mEq/L
Inderal (10mg)
1-2# (10-20mg) q6-8h   (抑制T4->T3)
  Atenolol (tenormin 50mg/#)
1-2# qd-bid         if 氣喘
  Bisoprolol (concor 5mg)
1-2# qd            if 氣喘
Dexamethasone (4mg)
0.5# (2mg)    q6h   (抑制T4->T3); 抑制T4釋放


** aspirin
可能加重甲亢
  
治療目標: correct severe thyrotoxicosis & 誘發因子
  
  無 clinical trial for treatment regimen
  initial治療需住進 ICU 監測

  治療方向
    1)抑制hormone的合成及釋出  => PTU, SSKI/Lugol's solution 
    2)antagonize 嚴重thyrotoxicosis所引發的交感刺激敏感度上升 =>beta-blocker
    3)combat 發熱 (hyperpyrexia)

1)抑制hormone的合成及釋出

   A.大劑量PTU 
     PTU (Propylthiouracil) (procil 50mg/#) (~400mg (8#), q4-6h) (PO, 鼻胃管, 肛門)
       *其優於methimazole, 因為它還能抑制周邊T4轉變為T3&甲狀腺製造從T4轉變為T3  by D1 (T3的主要來源).
  
   B.給PTU後1hr再給飽和碘化鉀溶液:
      SSKI (3 gtt, bid)
     Lugol's solution (10 gtt bid): 快速阻礙preformed hormone釋出.   
     Diluted Lugol's solution (10ml PO q8h), (最好在給完第一個劑量的PTU後1h再給, then taper it)   台大內科住院醫師醫療手冊3rd Edi. P499-500
      KI powder (1g/pk) (250mg) in 10ml water q8h

  *理論上PTU應該先碘之前給予, 以抑制先給碘可能造成甲狀腺素合成增加, 然而由於我們給大劑量iodine which造成Wolff-Chaikoff effect, 阻斷碘的organification, 所以碘化物可先給.
  *對碘過敏者, 可用碳酸鋰 (300mg PO q8h) 取代, 維持血清Li 約 1 mEq/L.

   C.Beta-blocker, (可抑制交感神經過度活化, 也可抑制周邊T4 -> T3)
      Propranolol (10mg=inderal or 40mg=propranolol) (40-80mg, PO q6h Williams 12Ed) (10-20mg PO q6h 台大內科住院醫師醫療手冊3rd Ed) (to ameliorate hyperadrenergic state; if no asthma or cardiac insufficiency)

   * 非常短效的 β-adrenergic blocker such as labetalol (200mg/#) (100mg bid, then 200-400mg bid-tid) or esmolol may be safer than propranolol in this situation.

   * High-output CHF can develop in severe  thyrotoxicosis,  and  a β-blocker may further reduce cardiac output.
      =>如果不能用β-blocker, 則可用 CCB (diltiazem) (30mg/#, 30mg tid (max 360mg/d) 來減緩心律.

   
   D.類固醇: (*用於 1) support stress 2) 抑制甲狀腺素釋放 (與碘化物互補) & possibly 抑制周邊T4 -> T3 (與PTU具協同作用) 

      高劑量dexamethasone (8mg PO, qd Williams 12Ed) (2mg PO q6h 台大內科住院醫師醫療手冊3rd Ed) or hydrocortisone (100mg q8h)
    


   *合併使用 PTU,  iodide,  and  glucocorticoids  可讓 T3 濃度在24-48h內回復正常. 

2)antagonize 嚴重thyrotoxicosis所引發的交感神經敏感度上升

Supportive treatment

3)積極退燒
   -輕微者用acetaminophen, 也可能需 cold blanket or ice packs (冰袋) 
   *勿使用水楊酸類(aspirin)
     1)因為它complete with T3,T4 for binding to TBG & transthyretin (TTR), 造成 free hormones level上升=>加重thyrotoxicosis.
     2)高劑量會提高metabolic rate.
4)IV fluid (葡萄糖) (Correct 脫水 及高血鈉) (if present)
6)給予廣效抗生素(after 血/尿cultures)
7)利尿劑 (if CHF or 肺congestion)

  

  

2013年4月11日 星期四

血脂異常


Dyslipidemia WHO分類:

  type1 chylomicron 高
  type2 LDL
  type3 IDL
  type4 VLDL
  type5 VLDL + chylomicron


膽固醇和三酸甘油脂的來源
  -一部份是從食物中吸收過來,如食物中的肉類、蛋、和乳類製品都是他們的來源,
  -另一部份則在肝臟中生成,其中膽固醇則由 acetyl-co A 生成。為了評估脂質對於身體的影響及疾病病型的診斷,


乳糜血
  -攝取食物中的油脂先在腸道被消化成小分子,才被腸壁細胞吸收,這些小分子在腸壁細胞中又重新組合並聚合成『乳糜微粒』(Chylomicron),大部分為TG,少部分為膽固醇。
  -乳糜微粒因顆粒大,會產生折光,當濃度高時血漿就會呈現乳白色,稱之為『乳糜血』。嚴重時,甚至血液一抽出來就呈現粉紅色,好像是血液中加入了牛奶。
  -捐血時偶有乳糜血現象者,可能是捐血前的飲食油脂含量較高,且餐後至捐血的時間間隔不夠所致。
  -肝病造成肝臟或脂蛋白分解酶對油脂分解的功能不夠好時,加上攝取過多的油脂或飲酒,就會使乳糜微粒堆積在血液中的時間較長而有乳糜血現象。


脂肪吸收代謝:
  -在小腸形成的乳糜微粒,經由淋巴系統注入血液循環中。
  -乳糜微粒好像是一輛卡車,將從食物所吸收的三酸甘油酯輸送到脂肪組織和肌肉。
  -血液中的乳糜微粒被脂蛋白分解酶分解成脂肪酸和甘油,以供組織細胞利用,剩下的膽固醇與少量的三酸甘油酯則被送到肝臟儲存或代謝。

  -乳糜微粒半衰期很短,數分鐘至數小時內就可被分解,最常見於餐後,正常人隔夜空腹後就不存在。一般而言,餐後血中乳糜微粒濃度會因食物含的脂肪量而增加,約2~4小時達到最高;8~10小時後回復到空腹值。
  

脂蛋白因其比重的不同而可分為五種

    乳糜微滴 (chylomicron)
    極低密度脂蛋白 (VLDL)
    低密度脂蛋白 (LDL)
    中間密度脂蛋白 (intermediate density lipoprotein, IDL)
    高密度脂蛋白 (HDL)


各種脂蛋白的組成

ChylVLDLIDLLDLHDL2HDL3
電泳原點pre-βββαα
脂質組成 ﹪
TG8450231154
膽固醇71938452215
磷脂質71819223023
蛋白質2819214155



平常我們測定血中下面四項脂質的血中濃度及加上血脂質的電泳分析做為正確評估診斷的依據。

(甲)血脂肪生化測定:

    (一)total cholesterol, Total-C
    (二)high density lipoprotein choesterol, HDL-C
    (三)low density lipoprotein cholesterol, LDL-C
    (四)triglyceride, TG

(乙)血脂質電泳分析: 血脂質的電泳可將血脂質分為四部分:

    (一)α (HDL)
    (二)pre-β (VLDL)
    (三)β (LDL)
    (四)原點(乳糜微滴)

臨床上血脂質蛋白的大致的濃度也可以從1.總膽固醇,2.HDL-C, 3.TG的濃度的測定就可以計算出來。

計算方法如下:

TC = HDL-C + LDL-C + VLDL-C (=TG/5)
VLDL-C=TG/5 = 0.2 x TG
TG=VLDL x5
TG= VLDL (85%) + chylomicron (15%)


不過當三酸甘油脂超過 (400 mg/dl) 時
->VLDL-C = 0.166 (TG) showed equal or improved accuracy with this estimation procedure, particularly at high TG levels.



LDL, chylomicron 高的原因:
 - lipoprotein lipase defi or 異常
 - Apo-C2 出問題

Lipid 代謝:
  - 20-30% 吃入
  - 70-80% 肝製造

Hyper-TG:
  -2° cause 最常見



Hyperchylomicron:
 Ethanol
 Lipoprotein lipase deficiency
 Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency
 T2 DM
 Familial hypertriglyceridaemia


Primary Hyperchylomicronemia

 -a syndrome in which the accumulation of chylomicron occurs in the circulation.

 -The main clinical symptoms are the huge increase in plasma trigriceride and cholesterol, and the presence of xanthomatous eruption, lipemia retinalis, hepatosplenomegaly, and the complication of acute pancreatitis.

 -With gene analysis, a deficiency of lipoproteinlipase (LPL) or apolipoprotein C-II is revealed as a main cause.

 -in some cases, abnormalities of remnant receptors, the presence of antibody against LDL, apolipoprotein C-II, and LDL receptor are reported as causes of chylomicronemia syndrome.

 -the major gene polymorphism and characteristics of clinical symptom of these disease.

-a rare autosomal recessive disease caused by lipoprotein lipase deficiency.

A nine month-old girl presented with eruptive xanthomas revealing a familial hyperchylomicronemia.
No lipoprotein lipase activity was found.
DNA analysis revealed a novel homozygous non-sense mutation of the lipoprotein lipase gene at the codon 288.
The parents were heterozygous carriers.

Familial hyperchylomicronemia usually presents with eruptiva xanthomas, abdominal pain, pancreatic manifestation and lipemia retinalis. Papulo-nodular xanthomas occur more frequently in children as in our case. Eighty lipoprotein lipase gene mutations have been recorded to date. The gene locates on chromosome 8. Only 9 non-sense mutations have been described which lead to a truncated protein. In our case, no enzymatic activity was detected probably due to an absence of secretion of the enzyme, even though catalytic activity persisted. The homozygous carrier status leads to hyperchylomicronemia whereas the heterozygote status may lead to mixed hyperlipidemia with an increased risk of atherosclerosis. The screening of lipoprotein lipase gene mutations should be carried out in all families with hyperchylomicronemia, regardless of the presence or absence of xanthomas.


INTRODUCTION —
 -In many patients hyperlipidemia is caused by some underlying "non-lipid" etiology rather than a primary disorder of lipid metabolism. 

-2° cause of dyslipidemia
  • Type 2 DM, poor control
  • Cushing synd
  • acromegaly
  • Excessive alcohol consumption
  • Cholestatic liver diseases
  • Nephrotic syndrome
  • Chronic renal failure
  • Hypothyroidism
  • Smoking
  • Obesity
  • Drugs

Fragminham CHD 10-y rsik score (1) score formula, (2) 計算器
Predictors
  • Age
  • Diabetes
  • Smoking
  • JNC-V BP categories
  • NCEP total cholesterol categories
  • LDL cholesterol categories


    HyperTG:  Lipanthyl (160mg/#) 1#qd;  ESRD (1# qod)


高血脂症